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Total = PV × (1+r)^n + PMT × [(1+r)^n − 1] / r. Real (inflation-adjusted) return ≈ nominal return − inflation rate. Tax drag reduces after-tax returns: a 7% nominal return in a 22% bracket yields ~5.5% after tax on gains. Index fund expense ratios of 0.03–0.10% vs. 1%+ for active funds compound significantly over decades. Sequence-of-returns risk matters most near retirement.
Simple ROI on cash invested: (ending − initial − fees) / initial. Does not annualize or account for time held.